Teaching Ideas

Reading Strategies for the TOEIC® Test

Thu, 31 Jul 2003 10:38:18 +0900

Johannes C. Razenberg

TESOL teacher

Introduction
If your learners, regardless of their TOEIC proficiency level(s), are having trouble understanding the context, purpose, sociocultural usage, and so on of the texts which appear in Part VII of the TOEIC test, then you may be interested in utilizing this text-based syllabus. You may decide to include the units of work in your current TOEIC framework, adopt some of the ideas, or use this text-based syllabus as intended series of lessons which focuses on developing seven reading strategies across ten text-type categories.

Aim
To improve learners' TOEIC scores in Part VII of the TOEIC test

Outcome
Learners will have acquired seven reading strategies for improving their reading comprehension skills.

Objectives
Learners will:

Use authentic texts to learn and practice the reading strategies.
Use TOEIC preparatory texts to practice the reading strategies under test conditions.
Think about the text-type of a given text.
Think about where a given text is used (social and situational contexts).
Think about the purpose of a given text.
Think about the main point(s) of a given text.
Think about the writer and/or source of a given text.
Think about the audience of a given text.
Think about the written expression of a given text.

Units of Work

Forms
Faxes

Tables
Memos

Charts
Bulletins

Indexes
Letters

Advertisements
Miscellaneous reading passages

Each unit of work follows the same genre-approach methodology and addresses each of the seven reading strategies. See Figure 1 for a list of the seven strategies and how they correspond with questions frequently encountered on the TOEIC test.

Sequencing
It is highly suggested that learners first learn the strategies with very straightforward text-types such as forms and tables and gradually work up to the more difficult text-types categories such as letters and miscellaneous reading passages.

Reading Strategies for the TOEIC Test

Strategy 1: Think about the text-type

What kind of text this?
What type of text is this?
What is the text-type?

Strategy 2: Think about where this text is used

Where would you likely find this ____(text-type)?
Where would this ____(text-type) most likely appear?
Where would this ____(text-type) most likely be found?
Where would this ____(text-type) appear?

Strategy 3: Think about the purpose

What is the purpose of this ____(text-type)?
What is this ____(text-type) used for?
What is this ____(text-type) for?
Why was the ____(text-type) written?

Strategy 4: Think about the main point(s)

What is this ____(text-type) about?
What is the main subject of the ____(text-type)?
What is the main topic of this ____ (text-type)?
What is the main idea of this ____(text-type)?
What is the topic of the ____(text-type)?
What do the listings feature?
What does this ____(text-type) compare?
What is the focus of this ____(text-type)?
What does the ____(text-type) concern?
What is the ____(text-type) promoting?
What is the ____(text-type) suggesting?
What is the primary focus of this ____(text-type)?
What are the contents of this ____(text-type)?
What is this list of?
What is the ____(text-type) showing?

Permission to copy

Strategy 5: Think about the writer/source

What does the writer expect from the reader?
What is the writer's intent?
Who would most likely use this ____(text-type)?
What can be said about the writer of this ____(text-type)?
Who would publish this ____(text-type)?

Strategy 6: Think about the audience

Who would most likely read this ____(text-type)?
Who would most likely respond to this ____(text-type)?
Who would find this ____(text-type) valuable?
Who would benefit from this ____(text-type)?
Where is this ____(text-type) most likely being sent to?
Who is the audience?
Who will read this ____(text-type)?
Why might people respond to this ____(text-type)?
A person doing what would read this.
For whom is this _____(text-type) intended?
Who would most likely use this ____(text-type)?
Who is this ____(text-type) intended for?
For whom is this ____(text-type) important?

Strategy 7: Think about the written expression

How is the ____(text-type) organized?

(Source Longman Preparation Series for the TOEIC Test)

(Fig.1)

Methodology

Opening

Write "READING STRATEGIES FOR THE TOEIC TEST" at the top-left of the whiteboard
Explain that a strategy is something which makes reading easier
Inform learners that they are going to learn seven strategies for making reading easier and for improving their TOEIC scores.

Strategy 1: Think about the text-type

Write "Strategy 1: Think about the text-type" underneath the main heading.
Introduce an authentic model-text (teacher's use only)
Broadly highlight and explain the language and sociocultural features that reveal the text-type.
For example:
This text displays two addresses, contains the salutation 'Dear ___', consists of paragraphs (introduction, body, closing), and has a signature at the bottom of the page. The writer, a salesperson, is communicating in writing with the addressee. Therefore this is a letter.
Put the features in note form up on the whiteboard or OHP to aid retention.
Text-type: Letters

Return address
Date
Inside address
Salutation
Introduction
Body
Closing
Signature
Footnotes (Cc, Attachment, P.S.)
N.B.: You may prefer to do a brainstorm activity in steps three and four with higher level learners.
Place a number and variety of TOEIC text-types on the table (see Units of Work)
Make sure that there are at least three target text-types
Write "How many letters (text-type) are there?" on the board
Get learners work together as a class to reach a consensus by isolating the target text-types
Remove the other text-types from the table
In the report-back phase, using a suitable function e.g. a knowing function, ask learners to highlight the language and sociocultural features which revealed the text-type to them.
We know (that) this is a letter because there is a salutation: 'Dear Mr. Snapshot'

Strategy 2: Think about where the text is used

Write "Strategy 2: Think about where the text is used" underneath Strategy 1
Go back to the teacher's model-text
Highlight and explain the language features that reveal the situational and social context
For example:
This is a business situation. We can see this from the letter head 'Smith's Camera Sales'. At the bottom of the letter there appears the name 'Sam Pic' followed by her job 'Sales Representative'. As we can see from the use of a picture of a new product and the words '50% discount for the first 100 buyers', this is a sales situation. Socially, Sam and Mr. Snapshot are not close friends so a formal level of language is used: 'Dear Mr. Snapshot' instead of 'Hi Mike'.
Guide learners in practicing the strategy with another authentic model-text (Learners' controlled practice sample)
Use the text-types which are on the table from Strategy 1. You are aiming for students to develop speed in understanding where texts are used. Say a question-answer exchange. The questions come from Strategy 2 (see Fig. 1) and the answers must correspond to the authentic texts on the table.
Where would you likely find this sales letter? - This letter would likely be found in a target customer's office.
N.B.: If your class dislikes flash card activities, you could write a question on the whiteboard for each text and ask learners to write down their answers. Then pool the answers in the report-back phase and discuss areas of agreement and disagreement until an acceptable level of comprehension is achieved.

Strategy 3: Think about the purpose

Write "Strategy 3: Think about the purpose" underneath Strategy 2
Go back to the teacher's model-text
Highlight and explain the language features that reveal the purpose.
For example:
- Color picture of a new camera (Smith 7ZX)
- 50% discount for the first 100 buyers
The purpose of this letter is to sell the new camera.
Guide learners in practicing the strategy with the learners' model-text
Go back to the texts which are on the table. You can have a game show complete with points and prizes or a multiple-choice quiz. You are aiming to teach learners to quickly identify the purpose of a text. If you want to incorporate a listening task, go for the game show, if you want to incorporate a reading task, go for the quiz. Use the questions from Strategy 3 (see Fig. 1).

Game show:
Hold up the text. Say: "What is the purpose of this sales letter?" Read out the four options: 'Is it (a) to sell a product (b) to instruct customers how to use the product, (c) to ask customers to stop buying the company's product, or (d) to send a written message by telephone? Choose your answer...And the answer is (a) to sell a product'. Check answers and award points.

Multiple-choice quiz:

What is the purpose of this sales letter?
a) To sell a product
b) To instruct customers how to use the product
c) To ask customers to stop buying the company's product
d) To send a written message by telephone

Strategy 4: Think about the main point(s)

Write "Strategy 4: Think about the main point(s)" underneath Strategy 3
Go back to the teacher's model-text
Highlight and explain the language features that reveal the main point(s). Show these points as they appear in context as sentences/clauses.

If you are one of the first one hundred buyers to purchase the Smith 7ZX, you will receive a 50% percent discount. Hurry, while the offer still lasts!
Guide learners in practicing the strategy with the learners' model-text
Go back to the texts which are on the table. Have cards with the main points written down (in abstract point form otherwise learners will simply engage in a matching activity) and include three non-relevant points.
Learners have to work together as a group to match the points with the appropriate text.
Tell learners that they are finished when they are left with three non-relevant points.

new camera

50% discount for first 100 buyers

best movie
In the report-back phase, ask learners questions from Strategy 4 (see Fig. 1) and get them to give you grammatically and syntactically complete spoken replies.
What is this letter suggesting? - It's suggesting that people buy the new camera in a hurry in order to receive a 50% discount.

Strategy 5: Think about the writer/source

Write "Strategy 5: Think about the writer/source" underneath Strategy 4
Go back to the teacher's model-text
Highlight and explain the language and sociocultural features that provide information about the writer
Guide learners in practicing the strategy with the learners' model-text
Go back to texts which are on the table. Use the questions from Strategy 5 (see Fig. 1) to get learners to exchange opinions about the writer and the source using a function for exchanging opinions. Record the ideas on the whiteboard so that learners get a spoken and written medium to absorb the information, and to allow for a quick de-brief flash card quiz. If you want to incorporate writing skills, a nominated leaner can write down the opinions.

Question-answer pattern:
What does the writer expect from the reader? - I think (that) the writer expects the customer to buy the new product. What do you think is the writer's intent?
Record:

Letters

Text 1

Text 2

Text 3

The writer expects the customer to buy the new product

De-brief flash card quiz using the recorded notes from the whiteboard:

The writer expects the customer to buy the product. (Answer: Text 1)

Strategy 6: Think about the audience

Write "Strategy 6: Think about the audience" underneath Strategy 5
Follow the same methodology as in Strategy 5. Only this time, use the questions from Strategy 6 (see Fig. 1).

Strategy 7: Think about the written expression

Write "Strategy 7: Think about the written expression" underneath Strategy 6
Go back to the teacher's model-text

Highlight and explain the language expression features. Draw a table on the board. Then transfer those features in words onto the table.

Written expression used in letters
Formal	Informal	Personal	Official
Company letter head Word processed Formal font (e.g. courier new) Signature Job titles Full block format Bold typed subject

N.B.: Use your own appropriate headings depending on the authentic text you are exploring.

Guide learners in practicing the strategy with the learners' model-text
Go back to the texts which are on the table. Get learners to think about the expression features. Use question such as:
How does the layout make you feel? Do you think this is a rich company? Is the product appealing because of the picture?

Revising the seven strategies

Go back to the teachers model and show a completed summary sheet.

Summary
Strategy 1: Think about the text-type	Sales letter
Strategy 2: Think about where the text is used	To reach target customers
Strategy 3: Think about the purpose	To sell the new Smith 7ZX
Strategy 4: Think about the main point(s)	New camera 50% discount for the first 100 customers
Strategy 5: Think about the writer/source	The sales rep expects the customer to buy the new product in a hurry
Strategy 6: Think about the audience	Photo camera stores
Strategy 7: Think about the written expression	Use of a picture of the new product Smith's Camera Store letter head Signature of sales rep Formal font

Get learners to fill out a summary sheet for the learners model.

Summary
Strategy 1: Think about the text-type
Strategy 2: Think about where the text is used
Strategy 3: Think about the purpose
Strategy 4: Think about the main point(s)
Strategy 5: Think about the writer/source
Strategy 6: Think about the audience
Strategy 7: Think about the written expression Permission to copy

Getting learners to use the strategies by themselves

Learners each need to select one authentic text, have a blank summary sheet, and refer to copy of Reading Strategies for the TOEIC Test.
Explain to the learners that they have to apply what they have just learnt. Mnemonically revise the strategies which are on the whiteboard.
Get learners to refer to their selected texts. They need to practice the seven strategies and fill out the summary sheet. Use the summary sheet to see how well they have understood the text.

Optional text-building activity

Adhering to the notion that memory works best when learners learn through reading, seeing, hearing, and doing (A series of lectures on memory, School of Education, Southern Cross University 1996), you could now get learners to use their knowledge to construct texts based on the variety of models which they have encountered. This is purely optional and not included in this methodology because not everyone has elaborate resources or computer labs. You might also choose to set this as a homework task.

Incorporating preparatory TOEIC test materials

Have a list of pages in learners' test preparation books that have questions that are the same as or similar to the strategies which learners practiced
Get learners to practice answering the questions under test conditions
Mark the answers and go over any errors.
De-brief by asking learners what they found easy and hard? See if they can offer reasons why they found some texts hard (e.g. I have never read a letter inviting someone to be a guest speaker at a seminar). Take the opportune moment, should it arise, to encourage further reading.

Assessment

Take careful note of which questions in Part VII of a TOEIC practice test correspond with the reading strategies. Note how many learner errors are made and revise the strategies/units as necessary.

References and Further Reading

Eggins, S. 1994, Introduction to Systemic Function Linguistics , Pinter, London.
Feez, S. 1996, Text Based Syllabus Design , NCELTR, Sydney.
Lougheed, L. 1996a, Longman Preparation Series for the New TOEIC(R) Test: Advanced Course , Addison Wesley Longman, NY.
Lougheed, L. 1996b, Longman Preparation Series for the TOEIC Test: Introductory course, Addison Wesley Longman, NY.
Wagsoft (n.d.), 'What is systemic-functional linguistics?', , accessed 25 Nov., 2002.

Exploring 'Yes/No'-questions: A Task for Teaching Alternative Responses

Fri, 20 Jun 2003 10:56:25 +0900

Johannes C. Razenberg

TESOL teacher

Teaching and learning fundamental English denotes that learners understand some fundamental language patterns. Giving a 'yes/no'-answer to a 'yes/no'-question is such a pattern. This task is not for those learners, rather it is for those learners who never got beyond that pattern; those learners who have become fossilized in always giving a 'yes/no'-answer (the answer expected by the questioner) rather than offering an original response (replying in words which are appropriate for the given social and cultural context). If learners are to improve their speaking skills, they need to be able to understand and use alternative responses when replying to 'yes/no'-questions.

Should you need to address this issue with your learners, you are sure to find the following task useful. (Please note that learners must be able to independently use and respond to interrogatives before using this task.) It can be completed within 20 to 40 minutes and done with both small and large classes.

Outcome
At the end of this task learners will understand that native speakers often give alternative responses to 'yes/no'-questions and will be able to do the same as appropriate for a given context.

Methodology
1. Draw up a teacher produced language sample. One sample must contain 'yes/no'-questions and -answers. The other sample must contain 'yes/no'-questions with alternative responses. Use focus questions so that students understand the difference in participant B's language in both samples. Have a second sample in reserve.

Sample

A: Could you explain how planes fly?
B: Yes.
A: Would you tell me how planes fly?
B: Yes.
A: Is air flow important?
B: Yes.

A: Could you explain how planes fly?
B: Well, as a starting point, let me demonstrate how air flows over a wing, causing lift.

Which dialogue did you find more realistic? Did the pilot in the first dialogue install you with confidence?

Sample

A: Shall I get you a drink?
B: No.

A: Shall I get you a drink?
B: I'd love one, but I'm afraid I can accept as I'm tonight's designated driver. Next time perhaps?

What are some of the difference between these dialogues?

2. Supply an authentic or near-to-authentic (e.g. movie) sample of a native exchange. Ask students to identify pattern answers and alternative responses. This may be done through the use of AV materials, as a reading exercise, or as an observation task in real life settings. Explore the social and situational context through teacher-led questioning. (For example: What is the relationship of these people? Where are they? What are they talking about? Is the language interpersonal or formal?)

Sample

Marie: So, do you think there's, like, a family waiting for you?
Bourne: I don't know. I've thought about it.
Marie: Is that it?
Bourne: One-o-four.
Marie: That's it, huh?
Bourne: Yeah, that's, uh, that's the address. No, no, keep going. Keep going.
Marie: Okay. Where?

(Transcribed from Mainichi Weekly Jan. 11, 2003, 'The Bourne Identity', p. 5.)

3. Ask students to only look for alternative responses now in other texts. Learners are to work as partners or in small groups. They collect the information by highlighting/noting alternative responses in texts. In the report-back phase, learners pool their language samples and share their discoveries (e.g. talk about different language usage across different registers). It is likely that learners will have some questions about different language usage in different contexts, so be prepared to answer them.

4. Move onto the activity/game. The activity/game [teacher's choice] is meant to be used as a fun, motivating and challenging way of learning language, so keep it light. The object is for students to use alternative responses to 'yes/no'-questions. Make a sound when a student makes an error (i.e. a buzzer) and keep a tally on the whiteboard of how many errors a student makes over the two minute period. This activity/game can go through one or more cycles depending on the level of student involvement. (I often find that students like the opportunity to re-challenge themselves.) At the end, if using this activity as a game, give some kind of reward to the person who made the least errors.

The Interrogation Activity/Game

(Acknowledgement: The idea for this game comes from interrogative activities cited in Paul, D. 1994, Communicate: Book 1, Heinemann, Oxford)

5. Close the task by getting students to report back what they learnt about the differences between using 'yes/no'-answers to 'yes/no'-questions and using alternative responses.

Linking with Future Tasks
A writing activity can be set in which students need to change the 'yes/no'-answers in an exchange to alternative responses. This is a good way of building student's knowledge of appropriate language usage for a given social and situational context.

Postscript
This interrogation activity/game has always had some cross-cultural barriers which a teacher needs to be aware of. Based on ongoing discussions with Japanese teaching colleagues since 1993, in a Japanese cultural context a 'yes/no'-answer to a 'yes/no'-question is considered to be a polite and correct response by learners to a teacher's question. Thus the interrogation activity/game tends not to go so well when a teacher gets involved. In addition, many of the topics which are explored in the classroom are often not explored in the cultural and situational use of language in Japanese society; therefore, learners opt for safe 'yes/no'-answers to questions. The way to overcome this is to let learners use any topic when they are asking 'yes/no'-questions.

A Surprise Box: A Resource that Engages the Young L2 Learner

Mon, 31 Mar 2003 11:01:45 +0900

Johannes C. Razenberg

TESOL teacher

When I was a child, I was crazy about boxes, especially ones that had something inside for me to discover. Thus, it occurred to me back in 2000 that incorporating a box as a teaching resource to aid discovery in my early childhood classes may very well work. And it did.

Making something meaningful and important in a child's world is no easy task. In the L2 language and learning relationship, it is essential that a child engages with the learning task to bring about learning according to ideas of early childhood education presented by Emmitt and Pollock (1997) and Maltby, Gage and Berliner (1995). A surprise box engages a child with both language and learning by drawing upon a child's natural curiosity in his/her immediate world, and requiring a child to produce the L2 in order to achieve a clear meaningful goal (discovering what is in the box).

Furthermore, in keeping with the purpose of incorporating a resource in an educational program, a surprise box:

helps to gain and maintain interest in a lesson;
encourages mental involvement;
encourages the use of various learning styles;
makes learning more meaningful by linking in with previous knowledge;
makes previous abstract ideas concrete;
caters for students who learn best through different senses;
reinforces, integrates, and extends classroom instruction;
helps in the recall of information;
makes previous explanations of difficult concepts and skills clearer; and,
provides immediate feedback and knowledge of results.

(adapted from Barry & King 1993, pp.136-7)

In short, a box of surprise discoveries engages the young L2 learner with the task and provides him/her with a context which s/he will want to use the L2 to communicate because the task is meaningful to her/him. I believe you will find a surprise box to be a valuable teaching resource in your classroom too.

Level

Early childhood to elementary

Number of Students

Whole class

Suggested Time

Up to 15 minutes

Learning Objectives

A surprise box will allow and encourage students to cooperatively work together and combine their knowledge, skills, and abilities in a discovery activity.

Proven Successful Lexical Areas

Classroom objects
Belongings
Sports equipment
Household objects
Clothing
Fashion accessories
Food
Toys
Musical instruments
Animals (a real puppy is quite a surprise)
Class rewards

Functions

Guessing
Predicting
Problem solving
Synthesizing
Gathering information
Describing

Proven Successful Exponents*

What could it be? It could be _____.
It's ____.
What do you think it is? I think it's _____.
What does is look/feel/taste/smell/sound like? It looks/feels/tastes/smells/sounds _______.
Can you guess what this is?
YES/NO questions.

* You are in the best position to decide the appropriate language for the age and level of your classes. These exponents are only intended as a guide.
Other Benefits

Inexpensive
Easy to incorporate into a lesson plan
Removes competition by fostering cooperative learning

Resources

A big bright multicolored box
Objects (real ones when possible) to put in the box.

Method

Place the objects in the box before entering the room.
Form students into a group in front of the box.
Guide students towards the language they need to discover what is in the box.
Give guidance (e.g. make a sound, offer clues, reveal the object a little each time) so that the sense of enjoyment and success will be maintained.
Reveal the answer by showing the object.

Important Notes

Avoid letting one student guess the answer as cooperative learning is to be encouraged.
Be careful not to lose control of the box or leave it where it can be reached by children when they are playing in the school before or after class because it quickly becomes a toy boat, a game of peek-a-boo, etc.!
The contents of the box should not be given to the class without a firm control of class discipline -- there's no getting that ball back once it becomes a fun way of disrupting the class!
If you want to involve the students in revealing what is in the box, simply add one object each time away from the group, return to the group, call on a student to act as the teacher, and follow the same method.

References
Barry, K. & King, L. 1993, Beginning Teaching: A Development Text for Effective Teaching, '2nd edn', Social Science Press, Australia.
Emmitt, M. & Pollock, J. 1997, Language and Learning: An Introduction for Teaching , '2nd edn', Oxford University Press, Australia, Ch. 11.
Maltby, F., Gage, N.L. & Berliner, D.C. 1995, Educational Psychology: An Australian and New Zealand Perspective, JohnWiley & Sons, Brisbane.

The Talk-box: A Five Minute EFL Activity to Promote Genuine L2 Conversations

Fri, 31 Jan 2003 11:19:25 +0900

Johannes C. Razenberg

TESOL teacher

I often hear that 'the simple things in life work best'. Testament to this is the "talk-box" (a box filled with conversation starters), which, despite its simplicity, has brought about numerous genuine five minute L2 conversations in my classes in Japan. This teaching resource came about in 2001 when I needed a resource which would allow me to observe a student's conversational and 'interactional' (Ur 1996, pp.129-131) skills, increase the volume of conversation in quite heterogeneous classes, and allow students to utilize class time to communicate using the L2, as this was the only time opportunity, for most, to ever use English.

Even to date students laugh, joke, teach each other new words and phrases, use conversational skills related to the culture of the English language (Ur 1996; Emmitt & Pollock 1997; Macquarie University c.2002a), and converse in more volume (Ur, 1996) than I used to believe possible in EFL classes in Japan. After much observation, critical reflection and refinement of the talk-box, I do believe that it's a resource worth sharing.

Level

Beginner to advanced

Number of Students

Partner or small group work

Suggested Time

5 minutes

Learning Objectives
The talk-box:

Will give EFL students the opportunity to produce genuine conversations that are rich in expressions, gestures, language functions, lexical areas, volume, and conversational and interactional skills.
Will allow students to converse in a safe and supportive partner work or small group environment about topics which provide an element of attainable challenge.
Will allow teachers and students to revise lexical areas taught in the classroom.
Will allow students to communicate beyond the use of isolate sentences and phrases.
Will allow students to communicate in meaningful and motivating social contexts.
Will let students discover for themselves what they can do with what they have learnt.
Will allow a teacher to step back and observe how much and how well learning has occurred.

Benefits

Inexpensive
Requires little preparation time
Great five minute reserve activity
Allows for revision, feedback, observation
Provides insights into the language requirements of each individual
Removes authority (the teacher), thus allowing conversation to occur without hesitation
Allows for peer teaching
Students can relate to the topics and thus can successfully use the L2 to communicate (Macquarie University 2002b).
Lets students genuinely converse in the L2- the highest considered skill of truly owning a foreign language (Ur 1996, p. 120).

Resources

Colorful or plain box
colorful or plain palm cards
marker pens.

Method

First, the teacher should write down the topics in the form of one-word-headings (e.g. holidays) which will be covered in class on the palm cards and put them in the box when students have the language needed to safely attempt the task (Leather 2000) so that they may experience a sense of progression and attainment (Maltby, Gage & Berliner 1995; Emmitt & Pollock 1996; Ur 1996) from being able to communicate.

In addition, get students, as the opportunities present themselves, to transfer class topics which they find interesting onto palm cards and place them in the talk-box at the end of each class. This lessens the preparation time and allows for the resource to be more challenging in accordance to the learning which is taking place. It also helps with student motivation and gives them ownership over the language task (Maltby, Gage & Berliner 1995).
To use the resource, put students in pairs or small groups and ask them to select a piece of paper from the box, and talk about it for five minutes or more. I have found that five minutes is long enough or most lower level students to feel a sense of achievement whereas talkative and higher level students often like to talk much longer.

Important Notes

Don't let the students know that you are monitoring them because it destroys the task, period.
It may take sometime to get the idea across that this is not a QA activity nor one where two people talk and everyone listens. To ensure this doesn't happen, I strongly suggest showing a model conversation, being sure to most importantly demonstrate interactional skills (e.g. interrupting, contributing) and communication skills (e.g. paraphrasing, active listening) associated with English speaking cultures.
Once students grasp the task, they often display true conversation, that is they will shift from the topic, revisit it, use incomplete sentences, and so on. This activity is for them so let them go with the flow--just observe what happens.

Assessment

Diagnostic observation to decide how well learning has occurred, and what language features and lexical areas need to be revised, expanded, or introduced in future lessons.

In short, a box full of words starts students talking; it's simple and effective. I believe that the talk-box will promote genuine L2 conversations in your classroom too.

References
Emmitt, M. & Pollock, J. 1997, Language and Learning: An Introduction for Teaching, '2nd ed.', Oxford University Press, Australia.
Leather, S. 2000, 'Safety and challenge', The ETJ Journal, Vol 1., No. 1, pp.1-3.
Macquarie University c.2002a, Sociocultural Aspects of Language Learning and Teaching, LING954 Course Book, by the National Centre of English Language Teaching and Research, Sydney.
Macquarie University c.2002b, Linguistics and language teaching, LING951 Course Book, by the National Centre of English Language Teaching and Research, Sydney.
Maltby, F., Gage, N.L. & Berliner, D.C. 1995, Educational Psychology: An Australian and New Zealand Perspective, John Wiley & Sons, Brisbane.
Ur, P. 1996, A Course in Language Teaching: Practice of Theory (Cambridge Teacher Training and Development) , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Slipping Pronunciation into the Regular Class

Sat, 25 Jan 2003 11:22:35 +0900

Judy Gilbert

Author

In an ideal English curriculum, all students would have a class dedicated to pronunciation/listening comprehension. They would get systematic instruction and adequate practice in the most useful concepts and they would learn how all of these concepts are interrelated through the rhythm and melody of the spoken language.

So much for the ideal. In real life, teachers typically have to squeeze pronunciation into their classwork by sheer cunning. And because time is so limited, rather severe decisions have to be made about what's really important, leaving everything else for some later time. This prioritizing is rather in the nature of Emergency Room triage, but I think it's the only practical approach.

What should the priority items be? For some years I've been asking this question of colleagues, including those familiar with teaching English in Japan. With the requirement that each topic must meet a standard of both crucial utility, and also teachability, following is my short list of four crucial concepts.

You will probably notice that some traditional topics are missing – like voicing distinctions, aspiration, elaborations on intonation (especially as based on emotional meaning), and many familiar sound problems. The reason is that these topics don't meet the criteria of highest priority. They can be taught later if there is (miraculously) more time available.

General Approach
If the concept has been taught before, you need only reinforce it in a few minutes during the main lesson. If the concept is new, you will have to devote 10 or 15 minutes to an initial presentation. This is not ideal, but it's realistic. The small lessons below include an introductory lesson on the concept, and then suggestions for reinforcement using regular texts. If you keep the teaching goals in mind, you should be able to find opportunities in whatever book you're using.

CONCEPT 1. JUST A FEW CRUCIAL SOUNDS
The Japanese language doesn't allow many final consonants and, unfortunately, final consonants are often crucial for grammatical meaning in English. So, on a triage basis, I would just focus on the ends of words and resolutely ignore other mistakes. Otherwise you will find yourself back into absorbing all available time with minimal pair drills. The really crucial sounds are /d/ or /t/, /s/ or /z/ and /l/. (But don't spend time on the voicing distinction – there isn't enough benefit for the cost in time at this point.)

Considering the time constraints, the most useful phonological concept about sound distinctions is the difference between stops and continuant. Students must learn to recognize the distinction because of its significance for listening comprehension. These sound cues go by very fast in normal spoken English – mostly because auxiliary verbs are generally said as contractions. If students can learn to focus on these particular final sounds, they are on the way to getting the general principle of hearing and using final consonants.

Examples of grammar cues:
Tense: He's gone. / He'd gone. I'll cut it./ I'd cut it. We care. / We cared.
Singular/Plural: book/books (or third person singular)
Question words: "Where? / What?

Presentation Technique
1. Say the word "bus"
2. Continue the final sound as you march back and forth, until you run out of air.
3. Ask students to try it with you.
4. Say the word "but," throwing your palm up in a Stop! gesture (don't release the air, but hold your tongue in the stop position). The air can't get out because it's stopped by the tongue pressed all around the toothridge.
5. Have students try alternating /s/ and /t/ sounds until they can feel the contrast.
6. Put this on the board:
English stops: P T K B D G
English continuants: All other sounds
(Affricates like the first sound in "chip" and "judge" are combinations of stops and continuants. /tS/ and /dZ/, but this is an unimportant detail unless some student asks)

In the Regular Class
Any time you see a word that begins with a vowel, look to see the final sound of the word before. Use this pair of words to practice linking. A major advantage of practicing sounds in a linking position is that difficult final sounds become initial sounds and are likely to be easier for students to say.

Ask students to practice final continuants by saying the word before and slowing down the link, as in "an n n egg" or "tell l l all the news", or "burger r r and fries". For stop sounds, the words must be said together, as in "Stopall that noise!" or "Thankyou."

Using the Class Text - Fifty Fifty (page 2)
This grammar exercise has a box showing What in the first column, is/are in the next column, and name?/names? in the last column so that students can practice putting together a question using these elements (e.g. What is his name?/What are their names?) Another box gives the same type of information for Where, do/does, you/they/he/she, and live? (e.g. Where do they live?/Where does he live?)

After some practice with these sentences, the pronunciation element can be inserted by asking them to do it again, but this time focus mostly on the stop/continuant difference between Where and What.

CONCEPT 2. SYLLABLE NUMBER
Japanese ESL learners tend to produce extra syllables when speaking English, so both listening comprehension and intelligibility are improved when students learn to notice the number of syllables.

All practice with syllable number should be accompanied by some physical gesture, such as tapping the table or moving a foot. This physical movement is far more effective than merely taking mental notice. Thus the difference between "can't and "cannot" is one tap versus two. Following is a mini-lesson to present the concept, and to slip it into a grammar lesson. The concept can be recycled during later lessons simply by asking "How many syllables are in that sentence?" and then giving students time to tap out the rhythm.

Presenting the Concept
How many syllables?
sandwich ______ chocolate/chokoleeto
send a witch ______ gift/gifuto
prayed -parade / can't-cannot / sport-support
Wednesday
blow-below / walked-walk it / closed- closet
1. rested roasted planted listed
2. landed winded faded raided
3. planned climbed closed walked
What do the verbs in group 1 have in common? ___________
Group 2? ___________
Group 3? ___________
What is the rule?
(Rule: All regular verbs which end in the letter "t" or "d" have an extra syllable in the past. All other verbs don't. Incidentally, this syllable number distinction is far more important than whether the final sound is /t/ or /d/).

In the Regular Class
Ask students to think of some (regular) verbs and ask class if the past tense adds a syllable. Or just look for any multisyllabic word in the text and have them tap out the syllables as they say it. All practice with rhythm should be accompanied by some physical gesture, such as tapping a pencil or counting on their fingers while they say the word. This physical movement is far more effective than merely taking mental notice.

Using the Class Text - Basic English Grammar (page 129)
This is a spelling exercise related to the Simple Past. It asks students to "Give the -ed form of each word" for a list of verbs, including stop, wait, study, rain, open, need, help, fold, listen. This task is used as a spelling bee or for written practice. After they have finished the task, add a pronunciation element by asking students to pick out which -ed endings add a syllable. Then they should practice saying all these past tense verbs out loud.

CONCEPT 3. WORD STRESS: Contrastive Length
The most significant difference between Japanese and English rhythm is that Japanese syllables are about equal in length but English syllables are not. A Japanese vowel may be extra long, but that is because it is a "double vowel". But in English, lengthening has several different functions, most importantly to show the difference between stressed and unstressed vowels.

For instance, notice the difference in length of the three vowels in the English word banana. Although they are all spelled with the same letter, the first and last vowels are pronounced in an unclear, shortened way. This is not due to careless or hurry. The reduction is systematic. The reason for this shortening is in order to make the middle vowel (the stressed one) more easily noticeable by contrastive lengthening. Compare the English word banana with the given name of the Japanese author, Yoshimoto Banana.

Since we all learn the rhythm of our native language from (or maybe even prior to) birth, it tends to be applied automatically to any new language. Therefore, because lengthening for stress is essential to clarity in English, it is important to give students a conscious awareness of the difference, and enough practice in this crucial element of the spoken language.

Demonstration technique: using a wide rubber band
Stretching wide, heavy rubber bands while practicing the lengthened vowels can provide students with a kinesthetic focusing tool to reinforce the contrast in duration. (Note: thin bands are apt to break and also do not give the full impression of the mental effort involved in making some syllables longer than others.)

Stress Rules
1. In every English word with more than one syllable, one syllable is stressed the most (primary stress).
2. Lengthening the stressed vowel. Stressed vowels are lengthened in English, much like lengthening for double vowels in Japanese, but for a different purpose:
Compare:
(Japanese) biru-biiru - Kosaka-Koosaka
(English) banana - California - America - rented - atom - atomic - economy - economic - chocolate
3. Stressed vowels are long and clear. Unstressed vowels are often very short and unclear (schwa /@/).

Schwa is the most common vowel in the spoken language because so many unstressed vowels are pronounced as schwa. It is one of the most difficult differences between written and spoken English because there is no alphabet letter for it. While students need to learn to lengthen the stressed vowel, they do not need to be able to use the shortened schwa sound in their speech (which is difficult for many English learners). But they DO need practice hearing it because the Japanese language scrupulously maintains the integrity of vowel sounds, so the frequent use of schwa in English is a major barrier to listening comprehension for Japanese learners.
Compare:

Japanese	English
Yoshimoto Banana	b@n-a-n@
Yokohama	Yok@h-a-m@
Gojira	Godz-i-ll@

In the Regular Class
Any multisyllabic word will do for practicing lengthening for word stress. If you're uncertain, check a dictionary beforehand -- many native speakers are uncertain when asked this kind of question, although they rarely make mistakes when they aren't consciously thinking about it. Another way to practice is by asking the class to whisper. Whispering seems to focus the mind better on the teaching point. Also, it changes the atmosphere in the class and so makes an intriguing alternative mode for practicing.

Using the Class Text - The Basic Oxford Picture Dictionary (page 86 - occupations)
Most of the occupations are multi-syllabic. You will need to read them aloud to students. Then ask them to decide which syllable in each word has the most stress. If you're uncertain, check a dictionary beforehand -- many native speakers are uncertain when asked this kind of question, although they rarely make mistakes when they aren't consciously thinking about it.

CONCEPT 4. SENTENCE STRESS
WHICH WORD IS MOST IMPORTANT? (This is the most crucial concept of all.)

Rules
1. The focus word in a sentence is "new information" or something especially important.
2. The focus word is emphasized so that the listener will notice.
3. Focus emphasis is made by changing the pitch and lengthening the vowel on the stressed syllable of the focus word
4. "Old information" is already understood, so it should not be emphasized (if many words in the sentence are emphasized, the system won't work)

Compare how Japanese and English might show emphasis:

Japanese	English
WATASHI-WA TABETE IMASE-N	I didn't eat it. (My sister did.) [pitch and length emphasis on "I"]
WATASHI-WA TABE-TE-WA IMASE-N	I didn't eat it. (I just licked it.) [pitch and length emphasis on "eat".]

Practice:
X: I want some shoes.
Y: What kind of shoe?
X: The beautiful kind.
Y: Black or brown?
X: Neither. I'm tired of black and brown. I want red shoes. Shiny red shoes!

The most significant and most easily taught form of the sentence stress is "contrastive stress". An especially effective approach is to have students challenge each other to give the appropriate answer, based on which remark the speaker has chosen. This makes a much stronger lesson than simply asking students to read from a script marked for emphasis.

1.a. It's a big dog. No, it's a wolf.
b. It's a big dog. No, medium size.
2.a. But I asked for two cokes! Oh, I thought you wanted tea.
b. But I asked for two cokes! Oh, I thought you wanted one.
3.a: I think that burger's mine. No, it's your brother's.
b. I think that burger's mine. Aren't you sure?

In the Regular Class
Any exercise which requires students to disagree is especially suitable for work on contrastive sentence stress, by practicing the pitch change and lengthening required in English. Dialogs and skits are particularly useful because the focus tends to shift from one remark to another.

Using the Class Text - Active Listening (page 11)
This exercise requires students to listen to math problems, such as "How much is three hundred eighty nine plus fifty-six?" After students complete this task, ask them to practice in pairs, changing one number and then asking "Did you say 'three hundred eighty-five'? The partner must then answer in a way to ensure that the questioner gets the message, "No, three hundred eighty NINE."

This use of contrastive stress is a crucial way to correct misunderstanding, because it puts a flashlight beam on the specific information desired. Students should be encouraged to change whichever number they wish, so as to make it a real challenge for the listening partner to notice.

Using the Class Text - Basic Grammar in Use (page 165)
This is a writing task involving comparative terms like older, bigger etc.

Write sentences with as---as---
Athens is older than Rome. Rome isn't as old as Athens.
1. My room is bigger than yours. Your room isn't ________________________ (Etc.)

Steps for adding a pronunciation element:
1. Do the exercise as a written task.
2. Then ask students to read the answers aloud, paying attention to giving emphasis to the word which is in contrast to the original statement.

REFERENCES

Azar, B. (1984) Basic English Grammar , Prentice-Hall, New Jersey
Brown, G. (1990) Listening to Spoken English (Applied Linguistics and Language Study) , Longman, London Dalton, Christiane & Barbara Seidlhofer, (1994) Pronunciation, Oxford University Press, London
Gilbert, J (1993) Clear Speech , Cambridge University Press, NY
Gilbert, J & Rogerson, P, (1990) Speaking Clearly , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Gilbert, J (2001) Clear Speech from the Start , Cambridge University Press, NY
Gramer, M. (1993) The Basic Oxford Picture Dictionary , Oxford University Press,NY
Helgesen, M. & Brown, S. (1994) Active Listening , Cambridge University Press, NY
Murphy, R (1993) Basic Grammar in Use, Cambridge University Press, NY
Swan, M (1993) "Integrating pronunciation into the general language class" Speak Out! Newsletter of the IATEFL Pronunciation Special Interest Group (11)Jan: 5-9.
Wilson, W. & Barnard, R. (1992) Fifty-Fifty, Prentice-Hall Regents, New Jersey

Teaching Beginners

Mon, 20 Jan 2003 12:33:39 +0900

Roger Barnard

Tama Art University

Teaching Beginner Students
I have met many language teachers who prefer to teach advanced rather than low-level learners. Understandable, I suppose, in that higher-level learners can often deal with more demanding topics in greater depth. But if you are genuinely interested in how people learn a language, and how the language teacher can best facilitate that process, there are special rewards in teaching beginners.

For one thing, lower-level learners are often more enthusiastic than their more able counterparts. And it's quite possible that they will be encountering your prized classroom tricks for the first time and gasp appreciatively at each one. They can also make noticeable progress in a relatively short time, unlike many learners who have reached the seemingly endless 'intermediate plateau'.

False Beginners
In Japan, an EFL teacher is unlikely to meet a zero beginner outside of junior high school; during my many years of teaching English here, I have taught only one true beginner, a businessman who had had no English education whatsoever owing to World War II. Over a period of about five years, he made slow but sure progress, but I suspect that I learnt more from his lessons than he did, especially in relation to systematic presentation, practice, and review of material.

Probably the majority of your low-level English classes will be for 'false beginners', learners who have studied English before, but have little or no communicative ability. All of the points I make below can help to make a class at any level more effective, but they are especially important when teaching low-level learners. I apologize if some of them seem too obvious to mention, but I hope they will provide some food for thought.

Planning and Preparation

Plan your course
Have some idea of how much material you are going to cover. Give your students an overview of the course and how much material you expect them to cover. On the other hand, don't make your plan too rigid; you should be able to make changes as you find out more about your students and their needs. If you going to give tests, warn your students beforehand.

Plan your lessons
Whether your class lasts 40, 60 or 90 minutes, think in terms of a starting activity (warm-up), main activity (probably divided into a number of separate tasks), and a final activity. But again, always be ready to modify your plan.

Check your textbook material carefully before a class
A teacher who is unfamiliar with the course materials does not inspire confidence. What needs to be pre-taught before the students refer to the textbook? It could be vocabulary, cultural information, a grammar point, or a pronunciation feature.

Try it out
If you are going to do an activity that is new to you, are you sure you know how to do it? If possible, try it out before you use it in class.

Sequence activities and tasks carefully
Generally speaking, it's safer to start with controlled activities and lead into guided and free activities.

Know the text
If your textbook has a teacher's edition, read it. It may suggest extra activities, point out possible pitfalls, present alternative presentation techniques, and include notes on pronunciation and cultural points. It may also provide photocopiables.

Setting Up Activities

Allow plenty of time to set up activities in class
If your students have not done a particular type of activity before (e.g. an information gap pair work activity) give them time to study the material and ask questions. Then explain the procedure briefly and demonstrate with a more able student. When the students have started, move around the classroom and see how they are getting on. Help out if necessary.

Be Consistent
Try to keep the task instructions and procedures you use consistent throughout the course; eventually, the students will know exactly what to do with minimum instructions.

Pace and Depth

Don't cover material too quickly
One of the most common mistakes an inexperienced teacher makes is to skim through material without giving the students time to digest it. At lower levels it's important to provide a lot of practice with limited language, while maintaining interest and motivation. A well-designed information gap activity is a good way of achieving this.

Balance

Balance is Important
Balance simple, low-stress activities such as dialog reading / acting and choral repetition, with more demanding communicative tasks such as questionnaires, and information-gaps.

Balance individual / pair / group / whole-class activities.

Balance controlled / guided / free activities.

Balance listening / speaking / reading / writing activities.

Balance challenging tasks with easier ones. This will help to keep students of different ability levels happy.

Balance activity types that the students know (and which thus provide a feeling of security) with unfamiliar ones that introduce an element of unpredictability.

Correction and Accuracy

Don't correct too much
(although some students will ask you to correct everything). Explain to your class (in L1 if possible) how or when you will correct, e.g. in certain controlled activities only.

Stay Student-Focused
When you correct, follow this sequence: a) help the student to self-correct b) invite another student to correct c) correct the error yourself.

Don't correct all errors
This will adversely students' confidence and fluency. Take notes of important errors as they occur, then deal with them later in the lesson or in a subsequent lesson. This also gives you time to consider the best way to deal with a problem.

Use short dictations for accuracy work
Have students compare their results in pairs, then elicit single sentences from selected student, asking them to spell out certain words, and write on the board. Alternatively, you can ask students to come up to the board and write one sentence each on the board, then ask for comments from the class as a whole.

Touchy-Feely

Help students to relax.
For some of your students, you will be the first foreigner they have met, and your class may well be the first classroom situation they have been in since high school.

Put yourself in the student's shoes. Remember that they usually have other important things to do and worry about apart from English.

Encourage students to help each other.

Help students to get to know each other.

Be patient.

Visual Aids

Use a lot of visual aids
Pictures, maps, menus, photos, diagrams, etc. Use an OHP if you can.

Pay attention to your board work.
If you plan to build up some kind of paradigm table on the board, plan it beforehand. This is especially important when teaching low-level students; sloppy board work can be confusing and lead to students memorizing incorrect forms. It also projects an unprofessional image. Beware of speling mistooks (whoops!). If your board is big enough, divide it into three main areas: build up a summary of the main points of the lesson on the left; use the central area for current work, and reserve the right section for impromptu notes and sketches.

Listening

Using Audio
If you use cassettes or CDs, consider allowing students to read the script after the task is completed.

Be Flexible
If you find your textbook listening exercises are too easy or too difficult, rewrite them, or ask selected / additional questions. One effective technique is to dictate, say, six questions or true / false statements about a listening text, then have students check what they have written with each other, then with you, then listen for the answers.

If you play a cassette tape, clearly establish the situational factors the students need (location, relationship between speakers, etc.) to complete the listening tasks clearly.

Play the tape enough times to enable the students to complete the task with relative ease.

Play the tape in short sections if necessary, but don't overdo it.

Asking Questions

Ask Everyone
When you ask questions, ask students in random order, so they are kept on their toes. However, don't inadvertently leave someone out.

Indicate the student who is to answer after asking the question, not before. This means that everyone pays attention.

Direct questions to the whole class some of the time, but don't wait too long if there is no response; Japanese students are often reluctant to answer independently.

Have students ask each other questions and have them ask you questions, too.

When students ask each other questions, have them ask classmates in different parts of the classroom.

Games

Use games if the students enjoy them
Some students don't. Think of your own variations on old favourites such as Hangman, Concentration, Bingo.

A good language game should be 'serious fun'
It should provide some kind of practice, and at the same time add a competitive edge to the class. If a game does not provide any language input or practice, it is not a language game.

Be Imaginative
Many games can be played in different configurations, for example, hangman can be played between a) teacher and class, b) student and group, and c) student and student. Exploit these variations.

Writing

Some students will want to write everything down, especially if you write on the board.

During listening and speaking activities, insist that they put down their pens, but if necessary allow them a writing phase later.

Homework

Encourage students to do homework regularly. Remember to check it and hand it back.

Tests

If you plan to use tests, make sure your tests test what you have done during class.

Conduct informal mini-tests regularly to get students used to the test types you use.

Ensure the students understand your grading system.

Try to use tests that have a positive 'washback effect'; i.e. that influence your lessons positively. One example is a simple speaking test, which students perform in pairs. The preparation for this kind of test can be extremely valuable.

Analysis and feedback

Keep a notebook of your lesson plans
Write notes on activities - did an activity go well, does it need to be modified? Does a handout need to be rewritten? Is there a problem with the textbook unit? Write your impressions of a lesson as soon as possible after it has finished; we soon forget what happens in class.

Encourage students to provide feedback on your lessons
You can use a simple questionnaire midway through a course or at the end.

Roger Barnard
Co-author of Sound Bytes (Longman ELT) and OnLine (Macmillan Language House)

Using Students' Native Language in Class

Sun, 19 Jan 2003 16:21:34 +0900

Peter Viney

Author and teacher

It depends. (By the way, that's a great phrase for teaching students how to gain thinking time!)

It's a different question for native speakers of English and non-native teachers of English. It will always be highly artificial for the non-native speaker to avoid the shared mother tongue totally. Students of all ages find it odder to speak English to a fellow-national than to a foreigner. You can see this starting with small kids. My nieces started school in French, though both parents were native speakers of English.

It was weird that they could chatter to their classmates in French, but would not accept French from family members (like me) who they knew to be English speakers. People with bilingual children report this same compartmentalisation. I've seen teachers who manage to keep their classes entirely in English, even though they're non-natives teaching their own fellow-nationals, and I hugely admire their resolve and effort.

A teacher in Spain last year explained how she got around the problem of teaching primary children and keeping the lesson in English. Though she was a native speaker, the kids heard her speak to their parents and other teachers in Spanish and at the earliest levels she had to use some Spanish with them. She introduced a glove puppet into class, and the kids accepted that the puppet had to be addressed in English at all times. She could also have conversations with the puppet.

Many teachers don't have a lot of choice due to lack of ability in the students' language, including the great majority of new native-speaker arrivals in Japan.

Many ELT teachers go to particular countries because they speak the language, so you'd find few teachers in France or Mexico who didn't have the choice. I started teaching in multi-lingual situations, where the sole use of English was a huge advantage, because it was natural and there was a reason for it in the situation. I've found Japan more similar in some aspects to multi-lingual situations because far fewer native speakers have sufficient proficiency to use the student's mother tongue effectively.

What happens eventually is that the teacher develops greater proficiency in the students' language. There may be a process here, which also happens as the teacher's knowledge of grammar grows. The more you know (in their mother tongue/ in grammar) the more you're tempted to use. Teachers go through phases of using the mother tongue more (or explaining grammar more), then very often make a conscious resolve to get back to the earlier stage where they used English more (or let students deduce grammar more).

At the earliest point, native speaker teachers begin by using odd words to create rapport. Even though the lesson is in English, they'll often greet, thank or bid farewell in the student's language. There's a lot of work before they can really explain in the mother tongue, but odd word translation might come in. Where most students have deduced a word in context, and a couple haven't, a quick translation is a lot easier than resorting to board drawing, mime, monolingual dictionaries, paraphrase, definition or whatever. Almost certainly you won't beat the fellow student's whisper, which might be how you get to learn some new words. There's a major gap between this and knowing whether the translation was right!

When I was teaching all Arab groups of total beginners in the 70s, I learnt a few teacher "survival" phrases (along the lines of Sit Down / Be quiet), and those teaching teenagers often aquire "discipline words" fast.

The funny thing was that Arab students never remarked on these little forays into their own language. Bernard Hartley, who'd taught in Saudi Arabia, used to tell me that as Arabic is considered to be the language of God, they just assumed it was divine intervention giving them simultaneous translation. I shared an office for two years with the late John Curtin, as well as writing a book (Survival English) with him. John could explain points in a multi-lingual situation in five or six languages, as well as correcting students' use of their own mother tongue. Whenever there was a general election in the UK, the school would hold a mock election for students with teachers role-playing candidates for the parties.

John won handsomely by giving his speech in Spanish, Portuguese, French and Italian, with a few phrases in German, Arabic and Hebrew. The other candidates protested at his tactics on the grounds that (a) it was a crowd-pleasing tactic (b) they hadn't understood enough of his speech to respond to his points. I never had that facility or that degree of choice in my own teaching.

One positive use of the mother tongue was with groups who failed to see the purposes of pronunciation, stress and intonation work. I taught several French Canadian groups in the mid 70s. Due to the political and cultural climate at that time they had chosen to learn English in England rather than by "going to Canada" (their phrase). I found them resistant to pronunciation work, as they didn't want to sound English. I used to get them to work on my French, and persuaded them to correct my pronunciation.

This caused great hilarity for them, and removed a lot of the tension of imitating English sounds and patterns. They saw me mess it up, and knew that I would not be appalled if they made errors. We had a lot of fun, and I found myself researching French words and phrases which are easily confused. Seeing me get into trouble in French made them a lot more careful in English.

Often the content of a lesson might prove so inspiring that students will fall into their own language in the discussion phase.

This is inevitable in any monolingual situation where paired and group work is used extensively. You can't legislate against it. One teacher I worked with used to impose tiny fines, and get the class to administer them. In the end, with adults, the only way is persuasion. You have to explain why you think they should stay in English as far as possible.

Recently, there has been less effort to stay entirely in English because more complex activities need explanation. The choice is sometimes between a fairly mundane (but easily explained exercise) and a far more complex and perhaps interesting one that might require the use of the mother tongue for setting it up. It's always going to be a matter of choice. By the way, you can usually keep the explanation in English if you apply enough effort.

Non-native speakers have the advantage of high proficiency in both languages. They know the process, the learning order and the common errors better than native speakers because they've experienced it. When I started teaching full-time, my boss insisted that one should learn to teach by progressing from beginners upwards. Too often, teachers work the opposite way, and do not get to appreciate how the progression operates. Non-native speakers will and should use their advantages by using the mother tongue when it's effective to do so.

Peter Viney
Peter Viney started his EFL career in the early 70's at Anglo-Continental, and he has been involved in materials development and teacher training for over 20 years. His co-authored textbooks include Streamline , Grapevine , Handshake and Survival English . Viney's first ELT video was published in 1985 and set the pattern that most ELT videos have followed ever since. His latest project is the adaptation of Wallace and Gromit's A Close Shave for the ELT classroom.

Tricks o' the Trade

Fri, 06 Dec 2002 16:37:52 +0900

Steven Gershon

Obirin University

All teachers who have been in the ELT biz for any length of time end up toting around in their head a well-filled grab bag stuffed with little pedagogic tricks and gimmicks. These are all the useful classroom insights, instincts, reflexes and techniques that are transportable, in one form or another, to almost any teaching situation, almost anywhere.

Some of our grab bag goodies are geared to our own unique teaching style, many of them may be more transferable than we imagined, providing other less experienced teachers, or those who have gotten bogged down with practices that don't seem to work anymore, a fresh way of doing things.

With that in mind, I'd like to pull out of my own grab bag just a few "tricks o' the trade" that usually make my classes run a bit more smoothly. Of course, I should quickly point out that these classroom gimmicks are simple, practical and, above all, obvious to most of you--things you probably already do. Nonetheless, I find that sometimes it doesn't hurt to state the obvious, if nothing more than to satisfy ourselves that we are not the only ones doing what we're doing.

Anyway, here's a peek at a few things (in the form of self-reminders) that I've stuffed into my pedagogic grab bag…

1. Keep a stack of lesson warmers, fillers and enders close at hand

Learning a language is a practical, skill-based endeavor. It's like a sport, involving both mental and physical apparatus--a sort of linguistic athleticism. And when athletes are about to play a sport, they need to limber up, stretch the muscles slowly so they don't pull or tear once the action begins. Students also need to warm-up at the beginning of a class, having come in 'cold' from the L1 environment. Starting straight off with 'the lesson' can be a real jolt to the verbal muscles.

Athletes also sometimes benefit from a sudden "second wind" mid-way through a long endurance event - a boost in energy just when they are about to peter out. For students (and teachers) this is where fillers come in handy--short five-minute activities we can pull out when the lesson is bogging down and the students need a break from the usual work at hand. These can often revitalize enervated (dozing) students and provide just enough of a change of pace to get them through the last 20 minutes of the lesson in a constructive way.

The same goes for lesson enders. These are particularly useful when, as sometimes happens, we come to that point in the lesson when we have 10 minutes left, the previous activity has fully run its course, there's not enough time to do the next meaty activity we had planned, and we don't want to finish the lesson early (especially when the department head is teaching in the next classroom!).

What works as a warmer, filler or ender? Almost anything, as long as it…
a. is short (5-10 minutes)
b. is non-threatening (involving language students feel comfortable with)
c. is fun/and or interesting
d. gets everyone thinking and/or communicating in English

Ones that work for me are: word games like hangman; guessing games like 20 questions or what's my line; a group brainstorm focusing on a single vocabulary item and whatever the students can associate with it; a round of pictionary (with the whole class guessing or in small groups); a short dictation (about me--students are almost always interested in information about the teacher); a tongue twister ("She sells sea shells by the sea shore; the sea shells that she sells are sea shells, I'm sure", etc.); an idiom of the day. Whatever works for you…just collect them, keep them nearby and pull them out when needed.

2. Prescribe a healthy dose of Classroom English

Our ELT comrades who teach in multilingual classrooms in English speaking countries have it easy. When they throw a pair or group task at their students, they can be fairly confident that the students will tackle it wholly in English. The students have to--they can't fall back on their first language when nobody else in the group speaks it. This is built-in motivation for the students to get (and remember) the language they need to do everything in English during a lesson.

We who teach in a homogenous language environment like Japan have to work harder to make sure our students really are using English as much as possible in the classroom. It's easy for them to fall back on Japanese, and often they do, out of habit, embarrassment or plain ol' laziness. However, they also rely on Japanese when they just don't have the necessary English to do what we want them to do.

For me, fixing this problem is, first of all, a matter of viewing all phases of a lesson--not just the tasks themselves--as opportunities to speak English. Secondly, it's making sure the students have or get the "classroom" language they need. And thirdly, it's letting the students know I expect them to use it.

Here's my "bottom-line" list of necessary classroom language:

"Help" English
Basically, these are the expressions needed for seeking some kind of linguistic help?from the teacher or a fellow student--for meaning, pronunciation, spelling, repetition or clarification. Oddly, it's one area of practical English that even intermediate and advanced level students often do in Japanese (or incorrect English), perhaps because their previous teachers have not bothered to make sure they know it and use it. I, therefore teach (and quiz) my students on useful "help" expressions like the ones below at the beginning of the academic year?and force (well, lets say "strongly encourage") them to use with me and with each other:

Could you say that again, please?
Can you speak more slowly, please?
How do you say ____ in English/Japanese?
How do you pronounce/say this word?
What does ___ mean?
How do you spell ___?

Task English
We can also call this "Classroom" English - expressions students need for getting into pairs and groups, negotiating tasks, checking answers with each other, etc. Once again, I find that students tend to do these things in Japanese simply because it's easier, i.e. they don't have the language to do it correctly in English. I deal with that by teaching them expressions like these:

For pair work…
Do you have a partner yet?
Lets work together for this activity.
Are you ready? I'll start.
I'll be A and you be B.

For group work…
We need one more person in our group.
Can I join your group?
Who wants to go first?

For comparing answers…
What did you get for number 1?
I got ____ for number 1. How about you?
I have the same/a different answer.
I didn't get that one.

All of the above language is not only immensely useful for students (in and out of the classroom) but also easy to teach. Of course, like with everything else in language teaching, it's not a matter of simply teaching it once in the first week and then sitting back while the students use it enthusiastically every lesson from then on. It takes continued vigilance from me for a good few weeks. But sure enough, if I do take the time to teach it, reinforce it and remind them to use it, it does eventually become the default mode. The amount of English flying around the classroom soars and, best of all, the students feel more confident and empowered (a real buzzword in ELT these days!).

3. Practice the art of mindful elicitation

Most lessons involve some form of elicitation--getting students to give the teacher the answer to a question (or exercise) or some information gleaned from a task. It's one of those things we learned in teacher training, asking good open questions, not always repeating what the student says, probing for a more accurate answer, etc. Most teachers, myself included, have their own way of eliciting, dependent on their personality, style and experience.

One thing I've found is that if I'm not careful (and believe me, sometimes I'm not careful!), the phases of the lesson when I'm asking students for answers can really bog down and zap everyone's energy and interest. Lots can go wrong, like…the student who doesn't know the answer and remains silently paralyzed while the whole class watches; the student who does know the answer, but speaks so softly nobody can hear; the keen student who always shouts out the answer before you have a chance to ask anyone, etc.

Here are a few things that I've discovered help out a bit:

Give students a chance to compare answers before asking individuals.
This is particularly useful for listening and reading tasks. Remind students to use the "comparing answers" language you taught in the first week!

Ask the question, then ask for volunteers, finally ask an individual.
Students often need time to think before being able to say an answer. Asking the question first, then waiting a few seconds to seek a volunteer, can mean the difference between getting a deadly silence and quick, appropriate response.

Don't ask students who look as though they don't know.
How many times have I wasted valuable class time, and worse, embarrassed a student, by asking for an answer that the student, had I noticed his/her expression and/or body language, obviously didn't know? Too many.

Move around to see who has the answers
I have a tendency get away from the front and move around the classroom when I teach. This is useful while students are comparing answers to listening or reading tasks or when they are preparing for a reporting back session after an information share activity. I can then check (surreptitiously) who has a good answer, and help the weaker students come up with an appropriate answer. Then I can try to elicit answers from those who have them.

Keep a distance when listening to answers.
Because I move around, I also tend to call on students from various areas of the classroom. Although this keeps students on their toes, I am careful not to call on students when I'm standing too close to them. Why? No, not because I'm so intimidating, but because they will speak too softly and nobody else will hear them. Solution: call on students when you are on the other side of the classroom. You then have a legitimate reason to ask them to speak up.

Lets finish with a short, simple one. In fact, this is one I have learned the hard way, many times--and continue to re-learn at least once every semester…

4. Don't base a lesson on the assumption everyone will do the homework.

I'd like to have 10 yen for every 90 minute lesson of mine that fizzled out miserably within the first 10 minutes when I discovered that 17 out of the 30 students didn't do the homework on which the lesson depended.

What do I do in those situations (aside from shout, scream, stomp my feet and banish the delinquent students)? Have a viable back up lesson plan (that doesn't rely on homework). And tell myself I will never, ever do that again.

Don't get me wrong. I think homework is useful and important, especially if the class meets only once or twice a week. So, given that a gram of prevention is worth a kilo of cure, my well-intentioned advice to myself is to try as much as possible to keep homework as a follow up to something we have already done in class, rather than as the necessary impetus for the next lesson. I know, don't tell me. Your students are different. You've trained them. They always complete their homework--all of it--on time. I hate you.

Finally...
Like I said at the beginning, none of the above tricks o'the trade are especially esoteric. You probably already know and do them, and have lots of others in an even bigger grab bag of your own. Great. Let me know what they are.

Steven Gershon
Steven Gershon taught EFL in Britain, France, and China before arriving in Japan. He has been teaching in Japan for 13 years and is currently the Director of the English Language Program at Obirin University. Being a glutton for punishment, he also writes textbooks. When he is not teaching or writing, he is swimming at Tipness, scuba diving in the Philippines, wind surfing at Enoshima or slurping lattes at Starbucks.

Student Goals

Wed, 06 Nov 2002 18:47:57 +0900

Steven Gershon

Obirin University

A New Semester - A New Class
As the new academic year comes upon us, we teachers scramble to get our textbooks ordered, finalize the syllabus for that new intermediate conversation class, dash off a few more handouts to get us through the first few lessons, or head off to the bookstore to get one more photocopiable text to stuff into our never-full-enough supplementary file. Whether, we are teaching at a junior or senior high school, college or university, language school or senmon gakko, there is a lot to do at this time of year.

One thing that guides us in these beginning of year preparations is our list of goals and objectives we have for whichever classes we are teaching. Being the ever diligent and responsible teachers, we have no doubt thought about the various linguistic outcomes we hope to achieve with our students. And, even if we haven't written them down in their full articulated and eloquent glory, we at least have them firmly in our mind as we set foot into the classroom for the first lesson.

However, what about the students' own goals and the things they hope to achieve from our class? I find that all too often my students don't have any idea what they want from my class (other than a good grade). Sure, they have vague notions like, "I want to improve my English" or "I want to get a better TOEFL score" or "I want to understand native English speakers when they talk to me." But when I try to get them to hone in a bit on their objectives, to think about them in a way that actually makes them tangible and concrete, my students are initially at a loss.

They seem to have no idea what they should be working toward that's reasonable, do-able and manageable. This is especially true of my first and second year university students, who tend to fall into that large ubiquitous category of TENOR students -- Taking English for No Obvious Reason (except to pass the class and get the required credits). But it is also often true of students in other learning contexts who do definitely have, or should have, real objectives, but haven't had the opportunity (or push) to actually articulate them.

Setting Goals
It's important, I feel, to get students to reflect on the goals they have, so that they can know what they are working toward, can keep track of their own progress, can revise their study strategies (or goals) if necessary, and, most importantly, can take some responsibility for their own learning. I generally find in my classes that when students do attempt to articulate their goals, they become more serious, more motivated and, overall, more effective learners.

How a teacher approaches this issue of goals with students depends, of course, on the level and age of the students, the course they are doing, the learning context, many things. There's obviously no one best way. Here's an idea of what I do with my university classes to get the students thinking about their goals. Feel free to adapt, add, delete, and substitute according to your situation and students.

The First or Second Class Meeting
1) Explain briefly the course syllabus, content for the course, being sure to mention the skill areas covered and the time frame, e.g., the total number of class hours or weeks.

2) Ask students to think about what their goals are for the class. Give them a minute or two to think silently, then ask them to write it down briefly on a piece of paper. After a few minutes, pair students up, getting them to tell each other what they wrote.

3) Select a few pairs to tell the class the goals they have written. These will most likely be very vague, general statements like the ones I mentioned above. After each one, try to elicit more information by asking questions, such as, "How many points do you want to increase your TOEFL score?' or "What do you want to be able to listen to and understand in English?" Make sure the questions focus on the specificity, achieve-ability and meaningfulness of the goals the students read out to the class, but don't overdo it.

4) When enough pairs have shared with the class their goals, Explain, simply, the importance of students having clear goals. The important concepts to get across are:
a) Goals should be specific.
b) Goals should be achievable (in the time available).
c) Goals should be meaningful (appropriate for the type of course).

It's best to use examples to make the points. I always use my (pathetic!) study of Japanese to drive the points home. For example, I tell my students that I study Japanese about three hours a week. My goal is to learn five hundred new kanji by the end of this semester (that's about 30 a week). I ask them if that is a specific goal. They can usually see that, yes, it is specific. I ask them then if they think it is achievable. They laugh. Of course it isn't with only three hours a week of study. I use as many examples as it takes to get the above points across.

5) Give out one blank index card (3x5 or 5x7) to each student and ask them to write their name, date and name of class at the top. Then ask the students to write down three goals they have for this class. Remind them that their goals should be specific, achievable and appropriate. The last idea of appropriacy or meaningfulness may be a bit tricky for the students to grasp. As an example, I suggest that if this is a conversation course, being able to write a business letter is not exactly an appropriate goal. Give the students about 10-15 minutes to write their goals.

It is helpful to give the students a frame on the board, for example:

My goals for this course are to…
By the end of this course I will (want to)…

6) Pair up the students again. Have the students read their goals to each other. Partners should point out any goals they think are not specific or achievable, and help their partner revise them. Give students about 10 minutes for this. Then ask each pair to choose one or two goals they think are good (i.e. have the above qualities). Ask selected pairs to read out their examples, making sure that the class agrees that they have the desired qualities. When enough pairs have shared their goals with the class, collect all the cards and keep them somewhere safe.

Mid-term Goals & Feedback
1) Pass out the students' original goal cards and ask them to assess how well they are progressing toward their goals. They can rewrite any goals they want or add new ones. I also sometimes ask my students to give themselves a progress report grade, such as, A = I am doing very well in achieving all of my goals; B = I am doing well in achieving some of my goals; C = I am not doing very well in achieving my goals. Remind students not to be too hard on themselves, as it is only mid-term, so they have the same amount of time again to progress.

2) Get a sense of how the students are doing by asking for a show of hands for A, B, and C above. It is also interesting to find out how many students rewrite or add to their goals. Don't be judgmental, but rather encouraging. Collect all the cards and keep them somewhere safe.

End of Semester/Year Feedback
1) Follow the same basic procedure as at mid-term. Pass out the students' original goal cards and ask them to assess how well they have achieved their goals. I usually pair up students and ask them to share self goal-report with a partner.

2) Get a sense of how the students have done by asking for a show of hands for those who feel they have or haven't achieved their goals. For those who are not satisfied, I ask them to think of a couple of reasons why they did not achieve their goals. The reasons could be because the goals were not achievable in the first place or that they didn't study very much, etc. Once again, don't be judgmental, but rather encouraging. Don't collect the cards; allow the students to keep them.

Using Video in the ELT Classroom

Sun, 06 Oct 2002 18:59:49 +0900

Andy Hoodith

Saitama University

A brief history...
Compared with other teaching tools: audio tapes, textbooks, and the basic blackboard, video is a relatively new option for the language teacher. The technology became affordable only in the late 1970s, and it was several years before video materials designed specifically for language learning were developed. In the twenty years or so since then, video has become an even more widely available teaching aid, although its penetration into everyday classroom practice and course/syllabus design hasn't been as deep as many had anticipated. The development of video materials for ELT use can be seen as having gone through three main stages.

Stage One
The first was the direct adaptation of existing methodologies to incorporate the new technology. The 1960s and 70s had seen the emergence of the functional/notional approach to describing and teaching language, and this had begun to replace transformational grammar as the main underlying principle behind materials and course design. This was soon reflected in video material, most noticeably with the appositely titled "Video English", a series of videos which took the main functions of the English language (such as greetings and introductions, asking for and giving information, etc.), and developed short sketches around them.

The video was accompanied by teaching notes, classroom activities, and transcripts, and although this additional material wasn't particularly well-presented, the suggestions for teachers and the additional language material were very useful.

Stage Two
The next stage in the development of ELT video materials involved courses based around a story told in episodic form. Whereas materials such as Video English aimed to provide a video resource which could be used as needed for a wide range of levels; an off-the-shelf resource which could be easily intergrated into any course, the story-based videos demanded a more long-term commitment and were aimed at particular levels of students. In most examples, such "A Weekend Away", and Robert O'Neill's "Lost Secret", the introduction of new language items was fairly strictly controlled.

This posed obvious difficulties regarding the need to structure the language effectively for learning purposes while retaining a sufficient degree of realism in the dialogue. The two examples cited above achieved this to a commendable degree, though other courses failed to produce the appropriate blend.

Stage Three
The third development was the adaptation of authentic TV and video material for language teaching. Two examples are the BBC's "Television English" series, in which excerpts from (mainly non-dramatic) UK broadcast TV programs were the focal point for well-written language learning activities, and the development by Sony of teaching materials based on a limited number of major feature films.

In addition to these three main strands of development, there have been variations in content or theme, with the needs of English for Specific Purposes being addressed with "Business English" and "Tourist English" videos, as well as courses aimed at children using cartoons, one of the best of which being "Muzzy in Gondoland".

Techniques
Because the video courses written specifically for ELT are usually accompanied by fairly detailed teacher guidelines, the remainder of this discussion will focus on general techniques for using video materials. These techniques can be applied to specially written or authentic video materials, and aim to introduce a greater degree of variety into classroom practice and to create a more productive interaction between the learners and material.

It should be stressed that these techniques are far from new, and the following is simply a brief overview of some of the methodological alternatives available.

Moving from the development of support and supplementary materials to the mechanics of using video, there are several ways in which the information transmitted can be broken down and re-assembled to good effect. One such technique is silent viewing. The students view a sequence, for example of a couple checking into a hotel or ordering a meal in a restaurant, and them attempt to generate an appropriate dialogue for the scene. The actual dialogue can then be used as a model from which to adapt the students' efforts.

Alternatively, if the students have already heard the dialogue, they can use the silent re-viewing to reproduce the conversation. The reverse technique is to play the sound only, and have students discuss what the scene might look like. The teacher may also make good use of the freeze-frame option, particularly if the material is proving to be difficult, to check comprehension and to answer unanticipated questions. In some viewings, particularly "reviews" of the video after the pre-planned activities have been done; students should be encouraged to indicate if they want a pause in the viewing to pick up on points of confusion or general interest. This goes some way to lessening the degree of teacher-centredness (produced by the fact that the teacher has the controller!).

The activities described in the lesson plan below can be divided into three areas: pre-viewing, viewing, and post-viewing activities

AIMS: To introduce various techniques that will help student comprehension when watching English programs on TV or video.

MATERIALS: A current news broadcast

PRE-VIEWING ACTIVITIES


ACTIVITY 1: Prediction	Tell the students that later they will watch a recent news broadcast. Ask them to discuss in pairs or groups what some of the news items will be. Once they have generated some ideas, get them to put them in the order in which they think they will be presented.

ACTIVITY 2 (if class size permits)	Construct a table on the blackboard showing the students' choices. If any of the items seem unlikely to be included in the actual broadcast (too domestic/too specialized, etc.) you may wish to ask students to further justify them – alternatively this could be left until they've seen the broadcast. Distribute a worksheet on which the students can put the news items in order and make notes on them.

ACTIVITY 3 - First Viewing	For the first viewing, tell the students that their main aim is to identify the general topic of each item and to note these down in the order in which they are presented.

ACTIVITY 4 - Checking	Students check their responses in pairs or small groups. Following this, elicit the news items from the class and put them on the blackboard, leaving spaces if the class didn't get them all.

ACTIVITY 5 - Second Viewing	Show the broadcast again, and ask students to make more detailed notes on each item. In order to better facilitate this, pause the video after each item.

ACTIVITY 6 - Checking	Students check the information they noted down with their partner or group.

POST-VIEWING ACTIVITIES
Below are some possible follow-up activities. Which of them you choose will depend on the needs and abilities of the particular class involved.
Review & Check:	Students re-view the broadcast and answer general comprehension questions
Focussing:	Focus on one of the news items in detail. Re-view it, highlight key vocabulary. Discuss the particular topic, perhaps with the aid of a related newspaper story.
Analyzing:	Have students discuss the selection and ordering of the news items. Do they agree with the choices? How similar are the items to those in the last news program they watched? Which items are "one-off" stories and which are likely to be continued in subsequent news broadcasts?
A FINAL NOTE...
Finally, in preparing materials and activities such as the ones described above, care should be taken in the selection of the video material, in particular regarding the areas of length and content. A five-minute sequence from a movie is likely to contain more than enough language for the students to cope with, and so it is better to expose students to several short sequences, each followed by activities which practice and recycle the target language, than to show a half-hour sequence and then give students exercises which rely more on memory than understanding. Regarding content, and as with choosing teaching materials of any kind, the needs and proficiency of the students is of paramount importance. It is possible to take scene from a movie such as Pulp Fiction, and through a battery of activities and lots of repetition, have a class of intermediate students more or less completely understand it. However, the benefits of this are questionable: understanding a particular scene won't help them significantly to understand the movie as a whole, and the dense, idiomatic language of that movie won't provide them with much language they can easily use outside the classroom. On the other hand, for a very advanced class, Pulp Fiction may provide a fertile source, not only of contemporary American language, but also of cultural issues which could be used for class discussion.

Andy Hoodith
Andy Hoodith is an author and works at the National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies. He is also a life-long supporter of Manchester City Football Club.

The Real World in the Classroom

Fri, 06 Sep 2002 19:02:23 +0900

Andy Hoodith

Saitama University

There has been considerable discussion as to how far language 'input' in the classroom should be structured to suit the competence of a given group of students. This has influenced ELT materials design and use, and led to a debate regarding how useful 'real world' texts or teaching aids are compared with those specially prepared for language learning. For example, which is more appropriate for an elementary level class, an actual train timetable, with all its complexity and untidyness, or a simplified version which enables the teacher to isolate, present, and practice specific teaching points? A similar situation occurs with maps, and it becomes clear that for some classes at some levels and for some purposes, teacher-designed or adapted materials are more effective. As usual, there is no definitive 'best' way, only options.

The lesson plan which follows is related to this issue, although it only addresses a fraction of the questions raised. Nonetheless, it is an example of using 'realia' (real world items/materials as opposed to educator-designed ones) to good effect; the aim being to promote genuine communication. The purpose is to highlight one fundamental problem with non-authentic materials; namely that students are often asked to pretend that a piece of information is authentic when it obviously isn't. Most textbooks contain many approximations of reality (as well as authentic items) in order to make the teaching aims more readily achievable. Some of these approximations are located so far from their real-world counterparts as to bring into question their validity and overall effectiveness.

The items described for use in the following lesson are simply examples, and there are hundreds of similar resources available to teachers.

LESSON PLAN

AIMS

To present & practice question forms related to objects & their purposes, and to use the information generated to practice the order of adjectives in describing objects.
(The two aims could be spread over two classes if the lessons are short.)

MATERIALS

an eraser, a teaspoon, a drinking straw, a teabag, a pachinko ball, a golf tee.

WARM-UP

Tell the class that you have an object in a bag under your seat and that they should ask you questions to find out what it is. The questions should not be content-based (for example, "What is the object in the bag?!!!"); but be ones answerable only with 'yes', 'no', or 'not important'. (This is a very old game: sorry if you've heard it before.)

As you elicit questions, write them down on the whiteboard to give students a questioning template from which to do the later activities.

Examples:
Is it bigger/smaller than……?
Do you use it every day?
Is it made of ………?
Does everyone have one?
Is it valuable?
Does it cost more than Y……?

If the students guess the answer quickly, do the activity again with another object to extend the range of questions. If it's taking a long time (more than 10 minutes), give them hints to quicken the pace.

Finally, write a description of the object on the board, incorporating some of the information which emerged during the questioning: e.g. A red and white striped plastic straw.

ACTIVITY 1

One student in a group or pair selects an object (a real one in his/her possession) and the others ask questions to ascertain what it is. On completion, they write down the object and a brief description of it. Then another student selects an item. This should last for around 15 minutes, and the teacher should monitor, correct, and help where appropriate.

ACTIVITY 2

Use examples from the students' items to point out differences between similar things. For example, most students will have a pen/pencil/eraser. Elicit differences between them in color, shape, size, material, etc. This should activate already established vocabulary and serve as a slight change of pace to the lesson.

ACTIVITY 3

Reversing the activity, ask students to write a brief description of an object in short sentences. Use the following example if necessary:

It's old. It is rectangular. It's green and cream colored. It's Japanese. It's made of paper. It's used every day. It has numbers and writing on it. What is it? A Y1,000 note.

Give students sufficient time (depending on their level) to complete the task while monitoring and helping as usual. Then write the following headings on the board:

How much? How many?	What's it like?	How big?
What shape?	How old?	Color? Pattern?
What is it?	Origin?	Made of?

Elicit descriptions from students and adapt them where necessary to fit the model.

Example: It's an expensive, square, blue and green checked, Thai silk handkerchief.

ACTIVITY 4

Students write brief descriptions using the model and hand them in to be checked.

ACTIVITY 5

As a final 'game' try to introduce an object that none of the students have encountered before, or something that has a use which is not immediately apparent – not an easy task – and get them to ask questions to determine its purpose. If this too difficult, a picture of such an object may suffice, although you're already stepping away from reality…..

Possiblities:

The plastic widget in the bottom of large cans of Guinness, and Boddingtons beer. (You have to drink the beer to get the widget!)
A pea for a whistle.
A cigar ashtray.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks to Bernard Hartley & Peter Viney for the table in Streamline Destinations Unit 51.

Andy Hoodith
Andy Hoodith is an author and works at the National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies. He is also a life-long supporter of Manchester City Football Club.

Promoting Oral Fluency via Group & Pair Work

Tue, 06 Aug 2002 19:04:49 +0900

Andy Hoodith

Saitama University

Imagine a class of 40 students: many teachers don't have to; they face the reality of such classes all the time.

Now compare this to a party with 40 guests. At the party, the people would probably divide naturally into pairs & groups, from two to groups of four or five. In a given hour or half-hour then, each guest has a greater number of opportunities to speak (though they might not take them).

The idea of group and pair work in language teaching is hardly a new one, but translating an idea into classroom practice often presents the teacher with practical, logistical, and organizational difficulties which can be difficult to overcome. Many teachers feel daunted by this, and often revert back to their tried and trusted methods. These may be fine in themselves, but if the teacher is bored with them (otherwise why consider new activities), then that attitude may well be transferred to students. On the other hand, a great new (for a particular teacher) activity which is badly prepared and implemented will likely have demotivational effects of a different kind. However, at least with the latter the teacher has the opportunity of trying again and improving things.

Listed below are a few of the difficulties which attempting group/pair work with large classes presents. As many teachers will know, the list is by no means exhaustive!

* Space: the arrangement of classroom furniture can mitigate against group work, though by no means does it completely prevent it.
* Instructions: it's essential that every student knows what the teacher wants him/her to do. This is obviously related to learner training, and many a good lesson plan has gone pear-shaped because some or all of the students hadn't grasped exactly what it was the teacher was after in terms of learner behaviour. This has implications for the limited use of the students native language in monolingual classes.
* Activity-Types: Group work is fine in theory, but what do the students actually do? This is the main focus of this session.

There are other problems, but for the purposes of this page I'll briefly deal with the first two areas mentioned above before presenting a lesson plan which gives some of the many options related to the third area; activity-types.

If the teacher has some flexibility in choosing the classroom, then this problem is relatively easily solvable. To recreate a "Party" style environment, have a party! Seriously, a gymnasium, large room with little or no furniture, or regular room with the furniture against the walls is quite adequate. If the furniture arrangements are fixed and there is no possibility of changing room, then the teacher must plan more carefully, and attempt to create gaps between the groups and circles of interaction. Drawing a plan of the room and visualising the arrangements will help to achieve this. Whatever the particular situation, don't be put off by the room you're in! It's a problem to be solved, so think!!

In a lesson of 40 minutes or even an hour, and with lower level students, a teacher can spend 25% of the time explaining what he/she wants, and the old adage comes to mind, "if they can understand these (complex) instructions, they probably don't need the simpler language that is the content part of the lesson". Carefully worded written instructions in (in this case) Japanese can be a useful aid in getting to the activity itself efficiently. However, students must also understand the limitations on the use of the their language: again this is part of learner training and relies heavily on the teacher's relationship with the class.

It's better to be strict, then ease up, than to allow students too much leeway to use Japanese in the first few lessons and then try to stop them overusing it. One method is to explain briefly in English, then if necessary supply written instructions in Japanese. If students are still not clear about what to do, then the written instructions probably weren't very good! You can then allow a couple of minutes for them to clarify the instructions for each other in Japanese -- not everything revolves around the teacher!

The following Lesson Plan introduces some ideas for large class group and pair work. As with the previous lesson plans in this series, it is hoped that this provides a trigger for adaptations and extensions to existing activities.

TIME: 60-90 Minutes

AIM: To provide speaking practice for a class of 40 students

WARM-UP

Ask the class: "What will happen on December 31st 1999?" Elicit or teach the phrase "Turn of the century". Now ask, "Who is or was the most important person of the 20th century?" (alive or dead, any nationality: they needn't have been born this century, but must have been alive during some part of it). Then take 4 or 5 examples at random and write them on the blackboard, asking if other students have the same opinion.

ACTIVITY 1

Introduce your own example (unless one the students has named him), Albert Einstein. Write his name and then ask the following questions as you write them on the board:

Who was Albert Einstein?

Where was he from?

What was his field?

What did he do?

Is he alive now?

Was he important or just famous?

Explain "field" if necessary (or use another word), and elicit answers. Make sure students understand the difference between questions with factual answers and those which require that they give an opinion.

ACTIVITY 2

Give students 10 minutes to write down the names of the 10 most important people to have lived this century. Stress that there is no moral judgment here, so that personalities seen in general as "bad", e.g. Hitler, can be included. Also make it clear that students must be able to provide some basic information about each of the people they choose, as you did with Einstein.

ACTIVITY 3

Now divide the class in to small groups. If possible, these should be of a minimum of 3 and a maximum of 5. Tell students to take it in turns to introduce the people they have selected, with the other students asking fact and opinion questions about them. Ask students to be open-minded: they should change their lists if other students in their group suggest more appropriate people, although they can stick to their original lists if they want to.

ACTIVITY 4

Depending on how the time is going, Activity 3 can be repeated by forming a set of different groups. Alternatively, you can ask students to find one new partner to discuss the choices with as a pair. This option might give the more shy students an opportunity to give his/her opinion. As the students do activities 3 and 4, go round and make a note of the names which seem to be coming up most often. You'll need these later to make the final activity more "doable".

ACTIVITY 5

To finish the class, conduct a rough survey to arrive at the whole class decision on the 10 most important people of this century. You may want to make the voting more strict, but this may take considerable more time. You could tell the class that there will be a formal vote at the beginning of the next lesson, and that they can change their opinions in the intervening period.

ALTERNATIVES

Of course, there are several variations on this theme, both in terms of the initial question (you may choose the last millenium, for example), and the way the discussion is structured. You should always tailor the activity types and the items you wish to focus on on your students: you know them best!

Andy Hoodith
Andy Hoodith is an author and works at the National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies. He is also a life-long supporter of Manchester City Football Club.

Learning and Acquiring Language

Sat, 06 Jul 2002 19:10:32 +0900

Andy Hoodith

Saitama University

Although the distinction between learning and acquisition can be explained fairly simply, when applied to the process of becoming proficient in a language this is in fact a very complex area, not least because how we learn our native languages is still far from clear. However, for the purposes of this article and the lesson plan which follows, the following broad distinction is a useful starting point:

Learning a language involves a conscious effort on the part of the student and is focused on a specific area of the target language, for example a grammar point or piece of vocabulary. This implies a view of language as, at least in part, a body of knowledge to be taken on board by the learner.

Acquiring a language implies that aspects of the target language are 'picked up' rather than formally learned, and that this process occurs during various acts of real communication. It has been suggested that children acquire their native language, particularly in their early years before formal instruction begins, by observing, internalizing, and copying a variety of rules which they then apply (often incorrectly at first) during genuine communication. In contrast, a teenage Physical Geography student may be required to learn the names and characteristics of the various types of clouds.

In terms of teaching English as a second or foreign language, we can sometimes see clearly which category, learning or acquisition, a particular classroom activity falls into. If we wanted to teach ten vocabulary items connected with clothing to a group of students, the following two methods would be among the many options available to us:

Method 1:
The teacher asks the students to memorize them for the next class, and then tests their ability via the use of pictures, sentences with appropriate gaps in them, or some other means over a period of several classes.

Method 2:
At the beginning of the class, the teacher makes some casual comments concerning his/her own or the students' clothes. At various points in this and subsequent lessons the teacher refers informally to aspects of dress and encourages students to make comments of their own. At no point would the teacher say anything like, "Today we're going to study clothes." The students would, in contrast, be exposed in a low-level way, to the target vocabulary.

The first method is clearly on the learning side of the spectrum: the students know what they're required to do and will be able to gauge their degree of success by the test result. The second method makes some attempt to allow the students to acquire the vocabulary and does not explicitly involve conscious, focused effort: the language 'occurs' as part of an informal chat or as an aside during the class.

The debate on the implications for teachers of the distinction between learning and acquiring a language is ongoing. It should be noted however, that although acquisition may seem more appealing because it promotes communication over the formal learning of rules, many variables come into play and complicate the issue. Below are some of the questions raised by this distinction:

• Which end of the learning/acquisition spectrum is most efficient for making progress in different language skills (reading, writing, speaking, listening)?

• Would a particular method be effective with all types of students? (probably not)

• Is chatting with a class for an hour to promote acquisition a valid activity? (possibly, but not for every hour of every class)

• How can we structure activities which promote acquisition in the classroom?

• What mix of methods is best for your students?

There isn't the time or space to go deeply into answers to these fundamental questions, but the following two lesson plans, which have the same broad aim and are laid out in parallel, contrast a 'learning'-based approach with an 'acquisition'-oriented one.

TIME: 45 Minutes

TOPIC: • Past/Present Simple Verb Tense Forms
• Talking about the past & the present

AIM: To increase student proficiency in using the Past Simple and Simple Present verb tense forms.

'LEARNING' Lesson
'ACQUISITION' Lesson

'LEARNING' Lesson

PRESENTATION

T: "Today we are going to study the simple past and present simple verb tenses. Can anyone give me an example of a verb in the past tense?"

After getting or supplying a couple of examples, T shows the following table on the BB or on a handout:

SIMPLE PAST (REGULAR VERBS)

Infinitive: to play
Simple Past: played

If the verb ends in 'e' add 'd' only:
Infinitive: to dance
Simple Past: danced

ACTIVITY 1

T distributes the following list and reads the instructions to the class:

Look at the lists of verbs. Fill in the simple past for each one:

work	watch	listen
cheer	fold	walk
smoke	stay	save
push	pour	look
own	hope	finish

ACTIVITY 2

Students compare answers before the teacher goes through them with the class.

ACTIVITY 3

T: "The present simple has the same form as the infinitive in positive sentences. Look at these examples:"

I walk - You walk - He/She/It walks
We walk - They walk

Irregular verbs form this tense in the same way.

T: Writes the following sentence on the BB and says, "Change the following sentence from the simple present to the simple past:"
We walk to school every day.
We walked to school every day.

ACTIVITY 4

Students are given 10 sentences to transform in the same way.
(no irregular verbs)

Top

'ACQUISITION' Lesson

INTRO

T: "Today we are going to talk about our home towns; the places where we lived when we were children and the places where we live now."

ACTIVITY 1

T distributes handout with the lyrics of the song 'Yellow Submarine' by the Beatles.

T: "Listen to the song and think about your home town, where you went to school, what you did in your spare time."

T plays the tape.

ACTIVITY 2

T asks several students these questions:
"Where did you live?"
"What was the name of your school?"
"What sports did you play?" etc.

If the student's answer contains a mistake, T repeats the answer correctly but does not explicitly refer to the error.

ACTIVITY 3

Work in pairs. Ask your partner questions about his/her home town and what he/she did there.

ACTIVITY 4

Now ask your partner about the town or area they live in now, and about what they do there.

Andy Hoodith
Andy Hoodith is an author and works at the National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies. He is also a life-long supporter of Manchester City Football Club.

Information Gaps

Thu, 06 Jun 2002 19:13:33 +0900

Andy Hoodith

Saitama University

This type of activity is not new: it became popular during the late 70s and early 80s when the emphasis shifted from treating language as a set of rules to be "learned" to teaching it as a communicative tool to foster genuine meaningful interaction.

The basic idea is based on pairwork, in which each student has information that his/her partner doesn't have; the goal being to combine their knowledge in order to complete a task. For example, one student may have a map on which half the buildings (post office, bank, newsagents, etc.) are marked, while the other has a similar map showing only the other buildings. After some pre-teaching of the appropriate question forms and prepositions of position, the students then take it in turns to ask and answer, eventually filling in all the gaps in their respective maps.

The activity described below is perhaps one of the simplest examples of an information gap activity and requires very little preparation time, although with more attention it can be made more elaborate and more relevant to a particular group of students.

TIME: 45 Minutes

TOPIC: Information Gaps

LEVEL: Elementary

AIM: To present and practice grammar and vocabulary associated with the description of pictures and diagrams.


WARM-UP	• Show the class a picture, preferably one which has a clear structure, i.e. one with something in the center, in the foreground and background, etc. Alternatively, draw a simple picture (with a border) on the blackboard. It could contain stick figures or just shapes, the names of which could be elicited from the class. • Ask students: "What is in the picture?" • Elicit answers and then ask, "Where is the diamond?" - "It's in the middle, on the left, at the bottom, in the bottom right corner, etc. • With higher level students, you may wish to introduce vocabulary associated with pespective, ie. foreground/background/behind etc. • Then ask students questions along the lines of "Is the square above the circle?" or "Is the cross next to the diamond?" • Elicit answers: "No. It's below it." "No. It's between the rectangle and the star."

ACTIVITY 1	Give each student a blank piece of paper and describe a (prepared) drawing to them using the pre-taught vocabulary. When you've finished the description, encourage students to ask clarification questions. If they're reluctant, ask them comprehension questions to generate the appropriate language.

ACTIVITY 2	• Distribute more paper to all the students and divide the class into pairs. • Ask one person from each pair to draw some of the pre-taught shapes on the paper, arranging them as he/she wishes. It is important throughout this activity that the paired students don't see each other's paper! The other student in each pair should focus on question forms which may be needed to check on the positions of the symbols. • Completing the drawing shouldn't take long. When it is done, the student who's drawn it then describes it to his/her partner (a paired activity similar to the one you did with them in Activity 1). • The pairs then reverse roles and repeat the activity.

VARIATIONS As implied in the introduction, there are many possible variations on this activity type. The ones closest to this particular example are the introduction of color, size, and more elaborate figures into the drawings. For example, if one student draws a tree, the other may ask "What color is it?" "How many branches does it have?" etc. It should be noted though, that the grammatical and lexical requirements expand rapidly as you introduce more variables, and that the simple format described above keeps the parameters of the language covered quite tidy.

Andy Hoodith
Andy Hoodith is an author and works at the National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies. He is also a life-long supporter of Manchester City Football Club.

Letters
Text 1	Text 2	Text 3
The writer expects the customer to buy the new product